description and appraisal
2010 revision
This
article describes the core features of some commonly written types of
renku sequence and gives a personal appraisal of each. The information
is intended to allow the reader to move beyond the narrowing confines
of the schematic guides elsewhere in Renku Reckoner.
The menu bar at left gives access all the schematic guides currently available,
as do the black buttons adjacent to each heading below. The menu bar at
right returns to various articles and pages of articles.
The name Kasen means 'Poetic Immortals' and refers to the Chinese and Japanese practice of creating ideal groups of thirty six artistic forbears. Prior to the establishment of the Basho school formalised linked verse was generally written as one hundred or fifty verse sequences. By the time of Basho's death the majority of haikai sequences were Kasen.
The structure of the Kasen reflects earlier practice in that it is based on the number of writing sheets (kaishi) needed to record the poem. The Kasen requires two folios. The six verses of the preface (jo) comprise the front of the first folio. The initial twelve verses of the development movement (ha) are written on the back of the first folio. A further twelve verses of the development movement cover the front of the second folio, and the six verses of the finale (kyu) are recorded on the back. It should be noted that some renku theorists, writing in English, distinguish between the two halves of ha, referring to the first half as 'development' and the second as 'intensification'. No such distinction is made in Japanese.
Elsewhere in Renku Reckoner the article The Seasons of Renku discusses many aspects of the way in which seasons appear and are distributed in a renku sequence. Here it is sufficient to say that in the Kasen spring and autumn predominate over summer and winter by a ratio of approximately 5:3. Spring and autumn verses each appear in clusters, typically of three, but which may extend up to five in a row. Summer and winter verses appear typically in pairs, however they may extend to a cluster of three, or be represented by a single verse at a time. Frequently a given seasonal cluster will cross the boundary between one folio face and the next, though in contemporary practice there is a trend towards congruity between folio and seasonal boundaries.
Other than for poems begun in spring, over the course of a poem the 'major' seasons of autumn and spring will each make two distinct appearances, whereas summer or winter may be represented by a single cluster. For poems begun in spring, that season will make three separate appearances. The fixed topic of spring blossom appears twice, in the penultimate position of the first folio back [verse position #17] and as the penultimate verse of the sequence [verse position #35]. These verses are never treated as the more generic topic of flower. The positions themselves are effectively set; very rarely are they anticipated or delayed.
Moon appears as the principal topic at or around the penultimate position of the preface [verse position #5], at or around the seventh position of the first folio front [verse position #13], and at or around the penultimate position of the second folio front [verse position #29]. This latter is always autumn moon, whilst a second autumn moon verse generally appears in the preface.
Love appears as a pair of verses somewhere in the mid section of both faces dedicated to ha. Basho tended to minimise this topic whereas others of his school would give it greater extent, allowing it the full run of classic emotion inherited from medieval renga, from unconscious attraction, through consummation, to disillusionment - with all the attendant danger of descending into narrative extension.
The special compositional characteristics of hokku, wakiku, daisan and ageku were central to the technical development of the Basho school and are honoured by contemporary writers of Kasen renku. Elsewhere in Renku Reckoner the article Beginnings and Endings examines these verses in detail. Similarly the article A Dynamic Pattern explores the meaning of the expression jo-ha-kyu.
Though he is known as the father of haiku the Kasen renku and haibun [mixed poetry and prose] were Matsuo Basho's preferred vehicles for expression. It therefore comes as no surprise that the Kasen is rather good.
Given the level of misinformation and misunderstanding surrounding renku in the English speaking world, particularly the fallacy that it espouses the perpetual search for novelty, it is worth dwelling briefly on some of the salient features of the Kasen. Seasons recur. They may appear for up to five verses in a row. There are two spring blossom verses. There are three moon verses, two of which are generally autumn. Love appears as a fixed topic twice, potentially for an extended run. These factors make nonsense of the assertion that the principal motor of renku is absolute diversity. The structure of the Kasen clearly demonstrates that fine writing has more to do with periodicity and interlocking cycles, with tonal control, evolution and recontextualisation.
And there's the rub: new or occasional writers of renku who have yet to refine their skills may find the Kasen simply too challenging. Without clear vision and leadership the twelve verses of a development side can rapidly become amorphous. The Kasen too takes time to complete. In the case of remote composition, by surface or email, the number of exchanges necessary to arrive at a full text may be so great as to cause the poem, or enthusiasm for it, to founder.
But the Kasen was and remains essential to the development of all aspects of excellence in renku. A person who limits themselves always to the shorter contemporary forms is unlikely to develop the highest level of artistry that the genre permits.
Han Kasen means Half Kasen. The Han Kasen is simply the first folio of a Kasen considered as a piece in its own right. With the exception of sequences begun in spring, seasonal distribution is identical to that of a full Kasen. For poems begun in spring the distribution is adjusted to ensure that all seasons feature at least once whilst the poem to closes with a second short run of spring verses. The single blossom verse, the two moon verses and a representative run of love verses would all be expected to appear in their typical locations. The preface 'ha' occupies the first six verses whilst skilled writers might attempt to draw the dynamic feel of 'kyu' into the closing portion of the poem.
Why would anybody want to listen to half a symphony, or view half a sculpture? Whilst it may be completed relatively rapidly the Han Kasen is so ugly and unbalanced that it barely serves as a practice piece. Its manifest deficiencies have been a principal factor in the search for more satisfactory short forms over the course of the last several decades.
The Triparshva - 22 verses - a description
The name Triparshva is derived from the Sanskrit meaning 'trilateral. The three movements of the Triparshva comprise six, ten and six verses respectively. Each movement expresses a core component of the jo-ha-kyu dynamic pattern: preface, intensification and finale. Two distinct seasons appear in each movement. Seasons do not straddle the movement boundaries. Autumn and spring verses tend to appear in clusters of three. Winter and summer appear singly or in pairs. The special compositional characteristics of hokku, wakiku, daisan and ageku are always respected.
The Triparshva has one blossom and two moon verses. The final movement closely resembles the final face of the Kasen. The Triparshva's sole blossom verse is therefore spring blossom, appearing in the penultimate position. Note that this topic is never the more generic one of flower. However - in addition to the historic cherry and plum - blackthorn, apple, pear and hawthorn blossom are all considered appropriate, the position of some as mid to late spring phenomenon not withstanding.
The close of the Triparshva's second movement is likewise similar to the close of the third face of the Kasen, autumn moon given prominence at or around the penultimate position. The location of the Triparshva's other moon verse further recalls the Kasen, being typically situated at verse #5 of the preface. This 'secondary' moon verse always takes a season other than autumn.
Love appears as a cluster of three of four verses somewhere in the middle of the second movement. The first and last of this cluster tend to be written as usher-of-love (koi no yobidashi) and end-of-love (koi banare) respectively. They therefore approach the topic indirectly.
The Triparshva - 22 verses - an appraisal
The Triparshva is an excellent vehicle for exploring and expressing the techniques and sensibilities typical of the Basho school. Both preface and finale are the same length as those of the Kasen. The fixed topics of moon and blossom appear in familiar contexts, encouraging a classical approach.
At ten verses the single development movement is long enough to achieve extended tonal and dynamic effects. Love has sufficient space to develop without the risk of becoming dominant, and there is room for discretion as to where it appears.
With its twenty two verse six-ten-six structure the Triparshva has sufficient extent to sensibly permit ideas of renku as mandala - a poem that contains all things - whilst still being compact enough to facilitate remote composition, via email for instance. In short, the Triparshva is very hard to fault. Persons who do not have the time, space, confidence or inclination to compose a Kasen should seriously consider the Triparshva.
The Rokku is a variable
length sequence comprising a flexible number of six verse movements;
it is designed to expand to fill the time available for composition.
The name combines the words for 'six' and 'verse' giving the principal
reading of 'phrased in sixes'. It also echoes the Japanese transliteration
of the English word 'rock', as in 'rock and roll' - a playful indication
of its originator's invitation to rebel.
At all times the Rokku adopts the jo-ha-kyu principles of pacing
and extended dynamic control. The first movement is considered as jo.
It employs the tonal and topical constraints typical of the Kasen; accordingly
moon will normally appear at verse position #5. The last movement is
treated as kyu. It is similarly reflective of the Kasen and
closes with spring blossom, followed by ageku - though unlike the Kasen
ageku may in some cases be non-season.
All other movements of the Rokku are ha. One, normally the
penultimate, is written using unconventional prosody. In Japanese, where
the majority of haikai is written as strict-form (teikei),
this particular movement adopts a freer approach. Conversely in English,
where most haikai is written as a type of free verse, it may be that
this passage should be written in a more avowedly strict-form manner.
At the time of writing Rokku have been composed in English which feature
a movement of alternating 5-7-5 and 7-7 syllable stanzas, fixed form
'zip' stanzas, or single unbroken line stanzas. At a minimum, considered
experimentation is to be encouraged at this point.
The Rokku lays great emphasis on the core generative principle of link
and shift with the consequent avoidance of any conceivable instance
of return or 'double doors' over an arc of three verses (sanku no
watari). Therefore, despite the anomalous nature of some of the
earliest published pieces, no tone or topic may persist for more than
two adjacent verses, seasonal passages included. The sole exception
is ageku, which is afforded the compositional latitude typical of an
Edo period Kasen. Therefore ageku may demonstrate a degree of regression
and, in sequences where the antepenultimate and penultimate verses take
spring, ageku may appear as a third spring verse, though even in these
cases non-season remains the default choice.
A Rokku begins with the season in which it is composed, or composition
is begun; it concludes with spring. Beyond these traditional considerations,
and the novel but formal injunction against more than two like verses
appearing together, all other aspects of seasonal distribution are left
up to the participants. Individual season verses or pairs of verses
may change without an intervening non-season verse; seasons may simply
alternate; 'minor' seasons might outnumber 'major' season, etc. The
Rokku also expressly permits su aki (plain autumn): instances
of a run (pair) of autumn verses in which the moon does not appear.
In short, the traditional considerations of seriation (kukazu)
and intermission (sarikirai) discussed elsewhere in the articles
'The Seasons of Renku' and 'Occurrence and Recurrence' may be in some
measure honoured, as with the schematic guides provided here on Renku
Reckoner, or largely discarded.
A traditional moon verse will appear in the first movement, and a traditional
blossom verse in the close. Love also appears as a fixed topic in association
with one or more movements of ha whilst there is also a newly
introduced category of fixed topic, the eponymous rock. This
category contains the elements stone, ice and rock
music. The default topic to be treated is stone. For sequences
with more than one rock position a variety of elements from the category
should be employed. Additional moon and blossom (or flower) verses may
appear in one or more movements of ha, often in the unconventional
contexts typical of a Junicho. The frequency of moon, blossom and love
verses tends to be reflective of the proportions inherited from the
wider historic literature. Rock verses have a frequency comparable to
blossom.
The opening (jo) and close (kyu) require sensibilities drawn directly from the Kasen and reflected so effectively in the Triparshva. The movements of ha by contrast are optimised for continual and rapid evolution with all the freedoms of the most non-conformist Junicho - more so in fact as the formal expectation is that participants, for the duration of an entire movement, must engage in a concerted exploration of their general assumptions in respect of prosody and verse structure. Further, throughout the movements of ha, the approach to fixed topics and seasonal distribution is frankly mercurial.
The introduction of the new fixed topic category of rock is little more than a pleasant whimsy, but the approach to the seriation of conventional topics (kukazu) is highly significant. Hitherto the formal justification for limiting a topic or season to no more than two consecutive verses has rested on the fact that the poem, a Shisan or Junicho for example, is so short that it would be otherwise thrown out of balance. The originator of the Rokku offers a different reason; Asanuma-san contends that any possible element of consonance between an added verse and the last-but-one is a de facto and unacceptable instance of reversion or 'double doors' (uchikoshi no kirai, kannonbiraki). Put another way, in matters of 'link and shift' the nature of the 'shift' must be absolute.
Persons used only to writing the shortest forms of renku might find such an assertion unexceptional. Yet it is in fact a rather maximal position which stands in direct contrast to the practice of the Basho school where, for example, autumn might command up to five consecutive verses, and love three or four. This is not to suggest that Asanuma-san's approach is therefore unreasonable, or indefensible, but it is challenging. Above all it would be unfortunate if it encouraged further truncation of the understanding of those forces which govern variety and change in a renku sequence. As the article 'Occurrence and Recurrence' elsewhere in Renku Reckoner argues, a single minded focus on the primary generative mechanism of 'link and shift' is not of itself sufficient to guarantee good quality verse, particularly in the case of extended sequences.
The folio structure of the Nijuin reflects that of the Kasen. It therefore divides its twenty verses between four faces or sides, each identified with an element of the jo-ha-kyu dynamic pattern. These sides are considered as preface, development part one, development part two, and rapid close, occupying four-six-six-four verses respectively. Each season features once, except for sequences begun in spring, in which case spring both starts and ends the poem. Spring and autumn verses tend to appear in clusters of three, winter and summer have one pair each. Seasons do not straddle the movement boundaries.
The Nijuin has two moon verses, one of which is always autumn. Except for sequences begun in spring the final face closely resembles the final face of the Kasen, spring blossom therefore appears in the penultimate position. For sequences begun in spring the topic of blossom often features in either hokku or wakiku, in which case it is absent from the finale. Blossom is generally treated as the traditional cherry or plum. The special compositional characteristics of hokku, wakiku, daisan and ageku are always respected.
Love may appear twice as a pair of verses midway on each of the two sides of development/intensification (ha). Alternatively love may appear once only as a cluster of three verses midway on either of the sides, in which case the first and last will tend to be written as usher-of-love (koi no yobidashi) and end-of-love (koi banare).
A feature of the renku renaissance underway since the latter half of the last century has been the search for new types of renku sequence that are shorter than the Kasen yet reflective of its general aesthetic characteristics. The popularity of the Nijuin is proof that its originator, Meiga Higashi, was successful in this quest. The Nijuin is clear, unambiguous, and effective.
There are some drawbacks. The preface can feel a little truncated as it is crowded with verses each having special compositional characteristics: hokku, wakiku, daisan and close. The division of the twelve verses of ha into two six verse sections may well mirror the symmetry of the Kasen but it does tend to limit the scope for extended tonal and dynamic effects. However these criticisms are marginal. Experienced writers will find ways to overcome them, whilst new and occasional writers of renku will benefit from the Nijuin's ease of assimilation.
Whilst some variants exist which allow for one only, the Imachi typically has a two moon verses, both appearing in association with a season, one of which is always autumn. There is a single blossom verse which embraces the conventional connotations of spring. Love occupies a pair of verses, sometimes extending to a run of three, normally towards the mid section of the poem.
The general compositional characteristics of hokku, wakiku, daisan and ageku are all respected, although the formal aspects of greeting and augury may be ignored, and a non season ageku is possible. The poem would also be expected to exhibit an awareness of the jo-ha-kyu principle of extended dynamic control, the lack of fixed page or movement boundaries allowing for flexible implementation.
The name Imachi refers to the tardy moonrise on the 18th day of the lunar cycle which is traditionally known for the patience, and appetite for extended revelry, it demands of those who wish to witness it – a witty reference to the fact that the moon verse or verses of the 18 stanza sequence appear in unusual or delayed positions. An alternative name for the sequence is Debana, which may, given the context, be interpreted as blossom arrives at any moment.
In freeing the sequence from the obligation to close on spring, and dispensing with formal page boundaries, the Imachi addresses the manifest structural deficiencies of the Han-Kasen whilst retaining the iconic properties of autumn moon and spring blossom.
The unbroken run of 18 verses facilitates a flexible yet demanding implementation of dynamic control techniques, as step changes in mood such as those envisaged by the jo-ha-kyu pattern may occur anywhere within the text and must be achieved entirely without the additional support of visual cues such as paragraphing or asterisks. The length of the sequence is such that a purely picaresque approach to structure is unlikely to be successfu, whilst at the same time permitting a variety of topics large enough to approximate ideas of renku as manadala.
Significantly the Imachi requires a run of three spring and autumn verses each, and supports three love verses in a row. In this it contradicts the widespread popular impression, generated in no small part by the popularity of the Junicho, that any continuation of context over an arc of three verses must necessarily be considered as an instance of ‘return’ (uchikoshi no kirai). Although Asanuma-san advances exactly this proposal with the Rokku, it is clear that it doesn not reflect the settled opinion of Master and Mistress Okamoto when framing the Imachi.
The Shisan - 12 verses - a description
The Shisan is a twelve verse sequence consisting of four movements considered analogous to the folio faces of the Kasen: preface; development part one; development part two; and rapid close. Each movement, comprising three verses, features one of the four seasons. As with all formal renku the poem begins in the season current at the time of composition but, unusually, then follows the natural calendar.
Typically spring and autumn are each represented by a grouped pair of verses, winter and summer by one apiece. However for sequences begun in winter or summer the convention that verse two (wakiku) should take the same season as verse one (hokku) is often observed.
The customary fixed topics of moon, blossom and love each make a single appearance, love extending to a grouped pair of verses. Because of the wealth of precedent and association, moon and blossom will tend to appear in their classic seasonal settings, autumn and spring respectively, though this is not a requirement. Some authors also choose to treat blossom in the more generic sense of flower.
The word Shisan has several layers of meaning. At a primary level it may be read as 'shi', meaning 'four', and 'san' meaning 'three'. When written in Chinese characters 'shi' (or 'tamawari') may be taken as 'a gift from a higher place', and 'san' (or 'bansankai') indicates a 'banquet' or 'formal meal'. For all its compaction therefore the Shisan is nonetheless an invitation to observe the finer points of style. Accordingly the Shisan respects the tonal and topical imperatives of the jo-ha-kyu dynamic pattern and honours the special compositional characteristics of hokku, wakiku, daisan and ageku.
What happens if you try to compress the vast scope of the Kasen into such a short space? You fail. In fairness this is not really what the Shisan attempts. But it does propose four movements phrased according to the principles of jo-ha-kyu and in this there are conflicts.
It is extremely difficult to establish the calm tone of the preface (jo) when all three constituent verses - hokku, wakiku and daisan - have special compositional requirements of their own. This is nowhere more apparent than for the third verse (daisan) which must at once 'break-away' from the more tightly paired hokku and wakiku, whilst conveying a sense of pause to mark the end of the preface.
By dividing into threes the Shisan also obliges both the first part of the development movement (ha part one) and the finale (kyu) to open with a short verse (tanku) - a marked contrast to the normal practice of beginning each movement with the apparently more authoritative long verse (chouku).
At first sight the adoption of the natural calendar may appear to be a welcome simplification. In practice it becomes considerably more difficult to establish a tangible non-season gap between seasonal clusters as there is a tendency for the mind to impute chronological references to the interstitial verses even where none are intended. For some the fact that spring blossom can no longer be relied upon to provide a graceful exit is also a drawback.
But the difficulties should not be overstated. The Shisan can be the vehicle for taught and finely structured writing as long as the temptation towards baroque intricacy is overcome.
The New Shisan - 12 verses - a description
The New Shisan - 12 verses - an appraisal
The Junicho or Twelve Tone is a ‘single sheet’ poem that disregards all formal separations. Typically spring and autumn are each represented by a grouped pair of verses, winter and summer by one apiece as, for sequences begun in winter or summer, the convention that verse two (wakiku) should take the same season as verse one (hokku) is frequently disregarded.
The Junicho allows for a single bloom verse; this may appear in any season and be blossom or a generic flower. The poem likewise contains a single moon verse that may also appear in any season. Love will be represented by a grouped pair of verses that may appear in any position, but are unlikely to constitute the very beginning or very ending of a poem.
The particular compositional characteristics of hokku and ageku tend to be respected whilst those of wakiku and daisan may well be discarded. The topical and tonal exclusions common to the opening movements of more traditional types of sequence are ignored.
The Junicho is the most flexible of the very short approaches to contemporary mainstream renku and pays little regard to precedent. The name 'Twelve Tone' recalls Hauer and Schönberg and is taken by many as an invitation to consider each verse as a distinct pitch or colour.
It would be unfortunate though if the inference is drawn that the Junicho is composed of 12 separate verses, each of which seeks to be as distinct as possible. The musical analogy reminds us that there must be elements of coherence to balance those of divergence; the pursuit of diversity at all cost is likely to result in a poem that is harsh and uninflected.
Though
they may be shorn of much classical precedent the fixed topics of moon,
flower and love are none-the-less present, as are the conventional seasons.
One could
argue therefore that far from being the most open form of renku - and
therefore ideally suited to persons new to the genre - the Junicho is
in fact highly challenging and best approached with an awareness of precisely
those sensibilities which it has, at first sight, eschewed.
Yotsumono,
or 'four things', is a very short sequence comprising hokku, wakiku, daisan
and ageku. First proposed in 2010, the name recalls 'mitsumono' (three
things) - the historic renga practice of affording particular importance
to the initial trio of verses of a writing sheet.
The developmental structure of the Yotsumono is similar to that of the
Chinese Jueju (Wade-Giles: Chue Chu). Pronounced in Japanese
'zekku', and meaning 'a discontinuous poem', this art form of great antiquity
is believed to have influenced the emergence of Japanese linked verse.
Each stanza of the Jueju has a discrete function and is named
accordingly. In Japanese these names are
kiku, shoku, tenku and kekku meaning description
(ki), furtherance (sho), break (ten), and determination
(ketsu). It
is the break and turn between stanzas two and three that earns the poem
its epithet 'discontinuous' or 'interrupted' (zetsu).
The Yotsumono identifies the particular characteristics of these stanzas
with the core requirements of hokku, wakiku, daisan and ageku - shorn
of such performative functions of greeting or augury as may be found in
formal renku. Unlike the Jueju the Yotsumono is dialogic, being
intended principally for two voices. It is also avowedly non-thematic.
There are no topical constraints in the Yotsumono. The dynamic tenor may
be compared to that of 'ha' rather than 'jo' as the
poem is intended to be swift moving and any drift towards tonal uniformity
is avoided. Yotsumono may be written in cognisance of the more formal
contemporary conventions regarding the seasons and their associated fixed
topics; they may adopt the freer approach typical of the Junicho or Rokku,
or use any combination of these and year-round mukigo.
As with the Rokku great emphasis is placed on the avoidance of any hint
of uchikoshi no kirai (reversion to the last-but-one) and kannonbiraki
(double doors). This extends to register, grammar and syntax. Poets are
encouraged to pay particular attention to the phonic properties of their
work, not least in achieving balanced and proportional cadences between
verses.
In order to discourage the unwitting development of thematic correspondences,
and allow the greatest possible scope for the final verse to provide a
'determination' or 'settlement', participants are enjoined to set aside
all discussion of a poem's meaning until composition is complete.
In so far as a definition of renku might be 'haikai no renga written in the manner of the Basho school' the jury must be out. Clearly Basho and his immediate disciples didn't write Yotsumono. But then nor did they write Nijuin, Triparshva, Junicho, Shisan or Rokku. Of these the Junicho and Shisan present radically different structures to those which were the vehicle for the development of Shofu, whilst the Rokku, in purposefully limiting seriation to a maximum of two consecutive verses, directly contradicts a central feature of Basho's carefully refined poetics. Further, all three promote or at least permit fixed topic treatments which are decidedly unconventional.
But it is reasonable to object that there is a matter of degree here: the Junicho might feel like a drastic contraction at only a third the length of a Kasen, yet the Yotsumono is only a third the length of a single face of ha! However the proposed definition is not 'written by Basho's immediate school' but 'written in the manner of the Basho school', and possibly this criterion may be met.
Whatever the length of sequence the Shomon sensibilities of fueki ryuko (the ever changing within the perpetual) and kogo kizoku (awakening to the high returning to the low) may be evidenced, particularly in contrast to the Danrin tendency towards the flashy and absurd, or the restrictions and pretensions of the Teimon school. The style of linkage is also crucial, less a matter of pure scent linking, than of a layered approach which mixes nioi with more simple methods.
The emphasis placed on balanced and proportional cadences between verses, and on the poetics of utterance in general, is a further reflection of aspects of Shomon renku which were integral to the source material, but which have received scant attention, and very uneven emulation, as the genre has emerged in English.
More problematic is the question of variety and change. Clearly, at only four verses, the Yotsumono cannot be a poem which contains 'all ten thousand things'. Yet this objection may readily be leveled at the twelve verse Junicho and Shisan, and the suggestion that the anti-thematic nature of renku is simply a function of the inclusion of a surfeit of materials is contentious at best.
Of the source genre, the majority of Jueju or Zekku are little more than a thematic or para-thematic exploration of a setting or topic with a pleasant or wily midpoint digression and an ingenious conclusion - an arrangement which bears little resemblance to renku. Equally the post-enlightenment poet may struggle to resist the temptation to see the Yotsumono as an invitation to some form of rational explication of a subject via the Hegelian dialect of thesis (hokku + wakiku), antithesis (daisan) and synthesis (ageku).
In order to avoid these pitfalls participants are directed to avoid any and all discussion of a poem's meaning either before or during composition, ergo: the poem cannot be thematic. Where it is adhered to this injunction has the welcome effect of focusing the attention on precisely those areas of prosody which otherwise all too frequently receive scant attention, whilst further boosting the importance of empathy in linkage. It also proves to generate an intriguing paradox in that a skillful determination, at ageku, will tend to generate a post-facto semantic coherence across the poem that gives the impression of an over-arching, and predetermined, intention.
The Yotsumono may indeed prove to be simply a writing exercise with ideas above its station. However the phenomenal success of Garry Gay's avowedly thematic Rengay and the continued experimentation with para-thematic short forms of linked verse such as Vaughn Seward's Renhai suggest that the appetite exists amongst English speaking poets for short collaborative forms which are both enjoyable and creatively rewarding. If the Yotsumono can satisfy this demand whilst respecting the most inviolable features of renku it might come to be viewed as a legitimate proposal for a renku sequence in miniature.
